Eassy Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words - 1

Eassy - Essay Example No wonder, the writer compared it to today’s terrorism rather than calling it a war. Since Warfare differs from terrorism in that the violent actions in the former are aimed at the combatants on each side and public generally is made aware that a war has erupted. Terrorist acts target innocent people deliberately. In warfare, innocents are not the primary targets. But this definition of war does not apply to Hiroshima bombing. Berger further proves his point as: â€Å"The two bombs dropped on Japan were terrorist actions. The calculation was terrorist. The discriminacy was terrorist. The small groups of terrorists operating today are, by comparison, humane killers" (273). The writer supports his comment by saying that terrorists also attack unaware common people at the railway station, in the market or people going home after the work. The war and terrorism are the evils and it is first duty of human kind to fight against evils and preserve life. This concept of ‘evil’, however, has been abandoned and it remains just an adjective today. The writer also discloses that today’s terrorists are from small nation who have dispute over large powers while Hiroshima atom bomb attack was made on a nation that had conceded defeat and was ready for negotiations (273). â€Å"While doctor and nurses at hospitals across the city tended to hundreds of damaged people, a disquieting sense grew throughout the day at other triage centers and emergency rooms that there, would, actually be less work: the morgues were going to be busiest.† (418) In the normal life, even a distant thought of a loved one’s death creates fear and we scold ourselves for such a thing, but seeing the gory dance of death and losing precious lives due to such outrageous and mindless violent act is unbelievable to most of us. A war without principles and terrorism are both extremely cowardly deeds. He continues: â€Å"But the real carnage was concealed for now by the twisted, smoking,

Change Management from Essentialist, Constructionist, and Essay

Change Management from Essentialist, Constructionist, and Participative Perspectives - Essay Example The essay discusses that social constructionists as a mechanism for examining the lives of individuals vary from the essentialists’ perception. According to the essentialists’ view, someone is perceived as â€Å"is lazy† whereas the same would be perceived as â€Å"being lazy† by the constructionist view. This implies that the essentialists refer to individuals as having a personality that is fixed, while the social constructionist, on the other hand, would suggest that an individual would change his or her personality depending on the circumstance or condition one finds him/herself in. The social constructionist perspective teaches people that the way in which they perceive the world ought to be unbiased. Presently, most individuals’ view about the world is based on the grounds of their previous experiences and knowledge. In fact, what exists within the world is only what individuals perceive to be in existence. Words by themselves only imply that anything means nothing on its own until people attach a discourse to it. The social (relational) constructionist perspective is a practical-theoretical range of understandings, which informs research, consulting and writing activities of different scholars and writers. A big number of consultants, researchers, as well as therapists perceive themselves as taking some form of social constructionist view although the concept of â€Å"social constructionism† has a variety of meanings. However, all constructionists share a deep emphasis on language with communication contrasting with more emphasis being upon language as presented. Besides, communication is perceived as constructed processes or products; in centering communal or individual construction processes; as well as in the importance given to the knower’s participation fact in those processes. Assumptions: The social constructivism and social constructionist perspectives are sociological knowledge theories, which con sider the way in which objects of consciousness or social phenomena develop in the social contexts. Social construct or construction is a practice or concept, which is a particular group’s construct. When something is said to be socially constructed, the focus is on its reliance on the group’s social selves’ contingent variables instead of any intrinsic quality it possesses within itself. Reality, learning, and knowledge are the key underlying assumptions upon which social constructionists perspective is typically based on. Strengths: The social constructionist view perceives all things as being social constructions; all things are metaphysical. This does not imply that the perspective views the external world as having unreal beings in a non-reality. On the contrary, it proposes that real and unreal notions are social constructs by themselves making the query of whether there exist anything real subject of social convention.  

Social Infrastructure and Economic Growth

Social Infrastructure and Economic Growth Abstract This dissertation has had a focus on the relationship and links between social infrastructure and economic growth in the context of Sub-Saharan countries. Predictability in development and growth is oftentimes linked to various endogenous conditions that can ultimately enhance or detract from the overall potential of a modern nation. The object of this research was represented by social and economic indicators in 23 Sub-Saharan countries. The aim was to find out whether the social infrastructure has a statistically significant impact on economic growth in this region. In order to reach this aim, the method of regression analysis has been implemented. The study has covered a wide range of social and economic variables observing them for a period from 1980 to 2008. The results of the study revealed that only population growth, life expectancy and savings rates are statistically significant determinants of economic growth in Sub-Saharan countries. This finding has supported the assumpti on that social infrastructure is an important factor that effect economic growth and development. However, the research has been limited by the lack of information on all 33 countries in Sub-Saharan region. Therefore, the sample was reduced to 23 countries. Furthermore, some social indicators such as Gini coefficient and mortality rates were not available for some of the older years in the sample. The study ends with recommendations to policy makers and discussion of implications. Dedication and Acknowledgment This dissertation is dedicated to my parents who I love unconditionally. I would like to express my gratitude to the University staff for the knowledge they shared with me and inspiring me to think critically. Authors Declaration I declare that the research project has been independently prepared by myself and represents an original work with no plagiarism. All external ideas and quotations have been properly referenced. The full list of references is contained at the end of the dissertation. Chapter 1: Introduction 1.1 Background As economic theory has evolved over the past several decades, a variety of variables have begun to infiltrate the standard models of growth and development. Roseta-Palma et al. (2010), for example, recognise that human capital has become an increasingly important variable in growth modelling, suggesting that the force behind such capital can radically alter the shape and potential of industry and markets. However, there is an inherent expectation of support, one which is based on the conceptualisation of the social infrastructure that leads the vocal masses to expect national investment in their wellbeing. To perform within a developing nation, society must be supported. The support must include effective health care and improved educational standards. The perpetuation of economic performance within diverse marketplaces ultimately relies upon the sustainability of such practices, leveraging human capital and contributing to market development. The theoretical background of this dissertation is represented by the elements of the economic theory that explains the growth and expansion as well as the role and influence of social factors. Econometric models put forward by the UN will be of particular importance. The research project will also review the arguments of famous contemporary economists such as Stiglitz (2009) and Jones and Klenow (2010). This will serve a useful theoretical background to the wider analysis, which is required for answering the research questions. The literature review will also cover the mainstream development theories such as dependency theory and social justice theory. From a conceptual perspective, researchers such as Newman and Tomson (1989) provide a precedence of focusing on social factors in economic development. They argue that social infrastructure is an essential element in sustainable long term growth of the economy. This theory may only be accepted as valid if it is statistically supported using the case studies of the economies. The testing has previously conducted by Jones and Klenow (2010). The researchers indeed supported the theory by finding that economic growth was boosted by increasing life expectancy in many countries. However, these researchers have not found such support of the theory for African countries in Sub-Saharan region. Therefore, this dissertation will attempt to study this region in more details and find statistical dependency between the social infrastructure and economic growth. Using the method of multiple regressions, a sample of 23 countries in Sub-Saharan region will be explored. The study will cover a period from 1980 to 2009. 1.2 Aims and Objectives In African countries, economic growth is a function of a wide range of variables such as foreign aid, foreign direct investments (FDI), policy reformation and liberalisation and others. This investigation seeks to examine a link, which is frequently overlooked in this dynamic and evolving economic system: social infrastructure. There is an innate reciprocity between social infrastructure and economic growth, one which requires further definition within the context of African evolution in order to determine the true order of events. In order to limit the scope and breadth of this study, the following aims and objectives were established: †¢ To determine whether social infrastructure is a fundamental determinant of economic growth. †¢ To explore statistical significance of social infrastructure as a determinant of the economic growth in Sub-Saharan countries. †¢ To recommend strategic policy implications for the transition economies in Sub-Saharan region that would help them to grow and expand. 1.3 Research Questions Based on the aforementioned aims and objectives, particular research questions were defined. They focus on investigation of the relations between the African social infrastructure and economic growth experienced by various nations within this region. It may be argued that the socio-economic aspects, which contributed to successes for many nations, remain inconsistent and non-definable today. Based on this supposition, the following research questions were defined prior to engaging in the investigative process: †¢ What are the primary threats/pitfalls associated with economic growth in Sub-Saharan Africa today? †¢ Does social infrastructure have a statistically significant impact on economic growth in Sub-Saharan countries? 1.4 Chapter Layout In order to standardise the research project, it was important to create a clear structure and presentation format. The study is structured in a way that would allow for progressing from more general information regarding the Sub-Saharan countries to more specific information regarding the variables that have a direct impact on the growth of the transition economies. The rest of the research project has the following structure. †¢ Chapter 2: Literature Review. This chapter focuses on a broad range of theoretical and empirical data that has been retrieved from a variety of academic sources. This literature review explores the determinants of the social infrastructure for developing nations, focusing on Sub-Saharan Africa. †¢ Chapter 3: Methodology. This chapter highlights the research methodology chosen during the collection and analysis of empirical data. Based on the precedence established by the past researchers, econometric modelling is used as the main method of the r esearch. This chapter also discussed the strategies and approached that were used with their justification. †¢ Chapter 4: Data Presentation. This chapter reveals the main findings and results of the research. The historical statistical data is presented and analysed. Correlation and regression analysis is applied to the data. The main results are summarised in tables and figures. †¢ Chapter 5: Discussion and Analysis. In this section, a synthesis of academic and empirical data is presented. The discussion is focused on the original research questions and objectives. They are compared to the findings achieved by previous researchers. Similarities and differences are analysed and explained. †¢ Chapter 6: Conclusions and Recommendations. The final chapter provides the final insight into the relations between social infrastructure and economic growth in Sub-Saharan countries. Recommendations for future research are offered since the research project has encountered par ticular limitations that have to be addressed in the future. Furthermore, policy implications are recommended in this chapter. Chapter 2: Literature Review 2.1. Measuring Economic Growth While it is widely recognised that the measurement of economic growth provides an accurate picture of development and achievement in transition nations, the inherent value of such metrics has been questioned during the last decade because of several pitfalls. Hoogvvelt (2001:8) argues that in early development models, all emphasis was placed on strategic enhancement of the transition economies with impoverished nations. A traditional indicator of economic growth is represented by GDP. While conceptually indicative of growth and economic expansion, this indicator has been recently challenged as an effective measurement of sustainable national development. In fact, researchers such as Stiglitz (2002, 2007) and Collier (2007) have offered the arguments on the fact that GDP fails to represent an accurate picture of national economic welfare. It is argued to limit the identification of economic inequality and circumvent such influential social indicators as mortality rates, GNI per capita , education levels, etc. Other researchers such as Thakur (2006) have suggested that the United Nations Human Development Index (HDI) should be used as an alternative measure of economic growth besides the GDP. 2.2. Growth Models The economic theory provides different growth models that explain the factors of economic growth and help to determine what cause an economy to expand. Among the well-established theories of growth are the neo-classical models suggested by Solow (1956: 65) and Ramsey (1928: 543). However, there are also alternative models that have recently been proposed. The most notable example is the endogenous growth model. 2.2.1. Neo-classical Growth Model of Solow and Ramsey The exogenous growth model has been originally presented by Solow (1956: 65). It is an extension of the previously formulated Harrod-Domar growth model. The latter suggests that the rate of economic growth is a function of the productivity of the countrys capital and the savings rates. Solow (1956: 65) has improved the Harrod-Domar growth model by differentiating between the new capital that emerged from the use of new technology and old capital. Diminishing returns started playing an important role in the exogenous growth model. Solow (1956:65) has also added labour to the determinants of the economic growth. The researcher argues that more than one factor of production should be included in the growth model. These factors are capital and labour. The researcher also emphasises the role of the technological progress in the economic growth. However, the model may be criticised for failing to provide the explanation of how and why the technology develops. In addition, the exogenous growth model may be criticised for neglecting the factor of entrepreneurship, which is argued to have a strong impact on economic growth (Braunerhjelm, 2008: 51; Audretsch et al, 2006: 119). Mathematically, the exogenous growth model may be presented as follows: Where Y is the output of the country; K is total capital (both new and old); L stands for labour; A represents technological development. The exogenous growth model is heavily reliant on the indicators estimated per capita. Hence, it places a significant emphasis on the role of the population growth in the economic growth. The capital per worker is argued to be growing only if the savings rates exceed the rate of populations growth and the level of depreciation of the capital. The exogenous growth model also suggests that the savings rate would be steady in the long run and have a positive correlation with the economic growth, i.e. the countries with higher savings rates will be expected to have higher economic growth. However, this notion was criticised by Ramsey (1928: 543) who proposed an alternative neo-classical model of growth. In his model the savings rates are assumed to be varying and not constant. The Ramsey model has changed the way the capital is modelled. Mathematically, it is represented as follows: Where k is capital; c is consumption; ÃŽ ´ is the rate of depreciation of capital; f (k) is the value of total production. Since the savings rates are not viewed as constant, the level of consumption is also considered as a varying process since it is tightly connected to savings. Since neither Ramsey nor Solow model of growth included the factor of entrepreneurship and explained technological progress as an endogenous process, an alternative model has been developed. It is called endogenous growth model (Barro and i-Martin, 2004: 205). 2.2.2. Endogenous Growth Model The previously discussed exogenous growth models suggested that a countrys GDP is a function of the savings rate and technological advances. Nonetheless, these exogenous growth models failed to show how savings are determined and how the technological changes are driven. These limitations are effectively solved by the endogenous growth model. It suggests that savings rates are simply a function of the utility maximising actions of the economic agents. Given the financial constraints, companies would aim to maximise their net income while consumers will tend to maximise their utility (Romer, 1986: 89). The endogenous growth model also explains technological progress as a result of the favourable policies from the government that do not restrict innovations and changes in the industries. It is valid to argue that in developing countries the governments may attempt to put certain restrictions on changes and innovations in order to protect the key sectors of the economy. The endogenous growth theory suggests that such actions would lead to a slowdown in the economic growth in the longer term. The theory also views company investments in the research and development as the way to technological progress and faster economic growth. Hence, the theory explains the growth of the economy with microeconomic elements (Aghion and Howitt, 1992: 323). However, the model has also been criticised in the economic literature. For example, Parente (2001: 51) argues that the endogenous growth model, even though being more complex, still fails to explain why there is a divergence in the national income per capita in emerging economies and developed countries. 2.3. The Social Factors, Economic Development and Equality A widespread academic research on social equality demonstrates that impoverished nations have traditionally failed to achieve healthy social infrastructure, which can sustain development amongst all groups of the population. Sebitosi and Pillay (2005:2045), for example, argue that poverty â€Å"is largely due to failure by society to productively deploy human resources† (Sebitosi and Pillay, 2005: 2045). The researchers argue that the governments of the countries with transition economies and policymakers cannot actively engage every individual in economic activities. In many cases, funding welfare programmes that were fiscally unsustainable has had minimal impact on the social welfare of the national inhabitants (Sebitosi and Pillay, 2005:2045). This is also illustrated by the efforts made by the African National Congress (ANC) in the late 1990s and early 2000s. Ultimately, it is the strategic utilisation of national resources that will allow for perpetuated social stability, gradual reduction of poverty over and improvement of social infrastructure. Sebitosi and Pillay (2005:2048) argue that availability of resources and the specifics of the culture determine the social infrastructure in a country. This, in turn, plays a role in the economic growth and development. Equality is a term used for describing the gap between the rich part of the population and the poor. This term is also expanded to describe the difference in rights between males and females, young and old, native and foreign ethnic groups, etc. Researchers such as Morvaridi (2008) and Houtzager (2005) argue that the merits of equality should be used as indicators of long term sustainability and economic growth of a nation. Anderson and Cavnagh (2009) have presented empirical evidence on the existence of income inequality and gender inequality that negatively impact the economic growth and development. Other academics (e.g. Sen, 2001) suggest that innate human rights must play a fundamental role in the development discourse, emphasising deficiencies within the national infrastructure that interrupt widespread equality. Accessibility and availability of resources and the level of social equality in developing nations are frequently identified as primary indicators of social development. Researchers such as Moradi and Baten (2005) have modelled social inequality according to anthropometric data. The model is focused on the level of development of social groups over the past decade. Their evidence highlights two different phenomena that have implications for policymakers in the future. First, the authors argue that evolution of the food supply has a direct and measurable impact on the physical characteristics of the population. Second, the marked increase in the social inequality has a direct impact on the resource accessibility and, subsequently, on the growth pattern of the surveyed nations (Moradi and Baten, 2005:1254). The implications of such evidence transcend the limitations of the model itself. The researchers recommend the governments to provide favourable external conditions for redistribution of wealth and resources in order to achieve higher rates of economic growth and development. 2.4. Resources, Social Determinants of Development and Opportunities In economic analysis of national development, indicators of sustainable growth are oftentimes linked to the advancement of technology, resources, and industrial activity. From a social standpoint, it is the access to resources and provision of more advanced amenities that allow researchers to effectively measure progress. Buys (2009:1496), for example, explored a widespread diffusion of cellular phones throughout Sub-Saharan Africa, modelling competitive networks according to the population concentration and government policy measures. Their time-scale representation of progress in cell-phone usage throughout this continent suggests that strategic policy reform has provided the most significant opportunity for widespread distribution of such technologies (Buys, 2009:1497). Improved competition amongst providers led to the spread of a sustainable low cost technology across the countries. This evidence suggests that opportunities play an important role in social and economic development. These opportunities, however, should be provided by the government and policy makers. Social factors in the sustainability of economic growth can oftentimes be overlooked in academia. Researchers focus instead on more tangible variables, attempting to model economic growth using purely economic variables and neglecting social factors. Chou (2006:910) demonstrates how social capital, as a strategic resource, can have a measurable and long term impact on the growth of a nation and its economic development. Essentially, as policymakers provide the resources for social capital to develop and expand, the infrastructure will simultaneously expand, allowing individuals to use the skills they have developed in a more effective and productive way. Over the long term, Chou (2006) suggests that technology and favourable policies of the government will lead countries to sustainable economic growth and stronger social infrastructure. Other models of social infrastructure have focused on the more practical composition of this expanding network. They emphasised such factors as the progress in transportation and population movement patterns. Porter (2002:286), for example, suggests that sustained improvements in both rural and urban transportation signal development progress in African nations. In particular, the author argues that economic recession of the 1980s and 1990s in African countries was reinforced by the poor condition of roads, transport and weak infrastructure. The deterioration of the transport infrastructure would reduce transport efficiency for the exchange of goods and services, resulting in a downward spiral in commercial activities (Porter, 2002:287). Porter (2002:296) argues that one of the methods to provide sustainable economic development is to stimulate the ‘scaling up of the national economy through the installation and evolution of social institutions. So, focusing on inequity in social development and the limitations imposed on infrastructure development and sustainability, the reviewed academics demonstrate how the consequence of restrictive social development is ultimately the deterioration of economic growth. The following empirical investigation will attempt to model such occurrences in modern Sub-Saharan Africa, highlighting those key variables that affect economic development. Chapter 3: Research Methodology 3.1. Research Model Researchers such as Moradi and Baten (2005:1234) argue that anthropometric models are fundamentally beneficial in the studies of national development, providing valuable insight into particular social factors that are indicative of long term development. In their analysis of Sub-Saharan African development, the authors used such models to analyse the data on accessibility of resources (i.e. nutritional and health inputs), providing a bounding metric by which they were able to evaluate inequality in the region (Moradi and Baten, 2005:1236). In a research model that was focused on a similar issue regarding the social determinants of economic growth, Newman and Tomson (1989:464) used World Bank databases to identify particular social indicators and statistically connect them to economic development. The methods and models of this dissertation are based on the research methodology of Newman and Tomson (1989: 464) and Jones and Klenow (2010). The econometric models will be represented by several equations that start from simpler ones and progress to the more complicated, which include additional variables and dummies. The list of equations that will be used is provided below. gdpij = ÃŽ ± + ÃŽ ²popij + ÃŽ ³pop65ij + ÃŽ »lifij + ÃŽ ´savij + ÃŽ µij (1) gdpij = ÃŽ ± + ÃŽ ²popij + ÃŽ ³pop65ij + ÃŽ »lifij + ÃŽ ´savij + ÏÆ'mortfij + ÃŽ ½mortmij + ÃŽ µij (2) gdpij = ÃŽ ± + ÃŽ ²popij + ÃŽ ³pop65ij + ÃŽ »lifij + ÃŽ ´savij + ÏÆ'mortfij + ÃŽ ½mortmij + ωhexpij + ÃŽ µij (3) gdpij = ÃŽ ± + ÃŽ ²popij + ÃŽ ³pop65ij + ÃŽ »lifij + ÃŽ ´savij + ÏÆ'mortfij + ÃŽ ½mortmij + ωhexpij + Ï dummyrij + ÃŽ µij (4) gdpij = ÃŽ ± + ÃŽ ²popij + ÃŽ ³pop65ij + ÃŽ »lifij + ÃŽ ´savij + ÏÆ'mortfij + ÃŽ ½mortmij + ωhexpij + Ï dummytij + ÃŽ µij (5) gdpij = ÃŽ ± + ÃŽ ²popij + ÃŽ ³pop65ij + ÃŽ »lifij + ÃŽ ´savij + ÏÆ'mortfij + ÃŽ ½mortmij + ωhexpij + Ï dummyrij + Ï„dummytij + ÃŽ µij (6) Among these models, the best one will be selected with the Akaike information criterion. Random and fixed effects will be used in the panel regression models to investigate, for example, the impact of the geographical location on the economic growth and other factors. A general form of the panel regression model with fixed effects will be as follows: yij = ÃŽ ± + ÃŽ ²Xij + uij, where the error term u is assumed to be a sum of the fixed effect and another error term: uij = ÃŽ ¼i + ÃŽ ½ij. The random effect model will be different from this one in how it explains ÃŽ ¼i and ÃŽ ½ij . These terms are assumed to be completely independent. Furthermore, they random variable effect implies that these terms are normally distributed, i.e. The choice of the methodology is consistent with the theoretical concepts of the growth models reviewed in the literature and supported by such economists as Solow (1956), Romer (1986) and Barro and i-Martin (2004). The theory of economic growth expressed by these economists mainly suggests that a countrys GDP is a function of both economic variables and social. In particular, it has been seen in the literature review that exogenous growth model connects GDP with the savings rates and technical progress. The theory of Solow (1956) and the growth theories in Barro and i-Martin (2004) also suggest that GDP is related to the population (social variable) because the latter determines the amount of capital and labour as factors of production. Hence, the core of the econometric model has been built on the exogenous growth theory proposed by Solow (1956) and explained in Barro and i-Martin (2004). However, it was found in literature review that this theory was also criticised. The models ha s been enhanced by inclusion of additional variables to make it more complicated and create a representation of social infrastructure, which is a key focus of the research. 3.2. Research Instruments, Approach and Sampling Based on the research model presented by Moradi and Baten (2005) and Newman and Tomson (1989), this investigation is focused on the changes in economic growth as a result of a number of social and economic variables that have been described. Researchers Thomas (2003) and Creswell (2009) provide models of empirical research, emphasising a unique link between both quantitative (statistical, data-driven) and qualitative (phenomenological, experience-driven) data streams. Their mixed method research approach places one of these two methods in a primary position over the other, allowing the subsequent research to serve as a validation mechanism. The data used in the dissertation is entirely based on economic development statistics within the Sub-Saharan African counties. However, the various phenomena, which contribute to such development, are of primary concern for the relevance and validity of this investigation. Therefore, a mixed method research approach was chosen for the study. Using this method, statistical findings will be achieved and later compared with various economic and social phenomena across the surveyed nations. Because there are 33 different nations currently associated with Sub-Saharan Africa, this research has chosen a sample of the top 23 countries in terms of population, attempting to retrieve data that is directly relevant to the conceptualisation of the long term sustainable growth and the impact of the social infrastructure on this process. Non-probability sampling technique has been implemented in choosing the countries. This decision may be justified by the fact that total population represented by the 33 countries in Sub-Saharan region is quite small and could be used without picking a sample. However, sampling was needed since a limited amount of data was available for the countries. Historical statistics have been gathered from Penn World Table, International Monetary Fund (IMF, 2010) and World Bank (2010) database. These sources provided information for only 23 counties in the Sub-Saharan region. 3.3. Strategy of Research While all of Africa could have provided very general information relative to the development of these nations as a conglomerate, it was important to evaluate the social infrastructure of these nations to narrow the scope of the research. The case study research strategy has been employed in order to investigate the social and economic situation in all the companies within the chosen sample. The case study strategy, which was popularised by Yin (2009), allows the researcher to extract particular data from complex problems and identify those variables, which are most significant. Furthermore, this strategy allows for effective exploration of both the statistics and context of the problem (Saunders et al, 2007, p.119). Yin (2009) presents a model of the investigative case study, suggesting that the breadth and focus of research questions will ultimately define the methods employed during the study. His validation of the case study strategy as a valuable tool within academic research is based on the depth and scope of the data generated from such investigation (Yin, 2009:14). Following such case study guidance and the mixed method approach previously discussed, this research was conducted in an effort to determine whether or not the social infrastructure has a direct and measurable impact on overall economic performance of the countries in Sub-Saharan region. The data sources were retrieved from two globally respected sources: The World Bank and the International Monetary Fund (IMF). Economic indicators were also gathered from Penn World Table. These databases have compiled specific economic and social data on the majority of the nations in the world, providing a resource for academics and policymakers. While the World Bank (2010) remained the primary source of the data, the IMF (2010) database was used for comparative purposes and in order to identify several variables not found within the World Bank annals. All analysis was conducted using Microsoft Excel and Eviews 6 statistical package. 3.4. Limitations As previously mentioned, the scope of the research in this empirical case study was limited to the top 23 countries in Sub-Saharan region. This limitation arose from the lack of economic and social data for the rest ten countries in the region. World Bank (2010) provided most but not all information that was needed. Another important limitation of the research, which is worth noting, is the lack of observations for several social indicators. It was noted previously that the sample of data covers 23 countries with the time range from 1980 to 2009. While many of the economic variables such as GDP were available for this period, some social indicators such as mortality rate were available only for a period of up to 5 years. Therefore, the overall sample will have to be shrunk to run the regression with these variables that have fewer observations. This is expected to have a negative impact on the accuracy of the study and estimated statistics. Chapter 4: Data Presentation and Analysis World Bank (2010) has provided economic and social data for twenty three countries in Sub-Saharan region. However, most of the data contained missing points. In order to avoid the problem of missing points, sixteen Sub-Saharan countries have been selected to be analysed for which more complete data was available. The data ranges from 1980 to 2008. However, some of the social indicators such as health expenditure and mortality rate were available only for a limited time period. The health expenditure indicator was available only for a period from 2003 to 2007. Mortality rate indicator was available only for a period from 1998 to 2008. Due to the differences in the time period of data several panel regressions will be run and the best model will be chosen by means of the Hausman test. Panel regression analysis has provided a number of advantages to the research project. First of all, it has allowed for gathering a large number of observations that totalled 4,250. If only time-series analysis was used, there would have been fewer observations. Similarly, in a cross sectional analysis the number of observations would solely depend on the number of countries included. Panel regression analysis has allowed for combining both time and cross sectional dimensions making the analysis more advanced. Secondly, another advantage of using the panel data analysis was higher degrees of freedom. This is a result of the more observations that the method has provided. Degr Social Infrastructure and Economic Growth Social Infrastructure and Economic Growth Abstract This dissertation has had a focus on the relationship and links between social infrastructure and economic growth in the context of Sub-Saharan countries. Predictability in development and growth is oftentimes linked to various endogenous conditions that can ultimately enhance or detract from the overall potential of a modern nation. The object of this research was represented by social and economic indicators in 23 Sub-Saharan countries. The aim was to find out whether the social infrastructure has a statistically significant impact on economic growth in this region. In order to reach this aim, the method of regression analysis has been implemented. The study has covered a wide range of social and economic variables observing them for a period from 1980 to 2008. The results of the study revealed that only population growth, life expectancy and savings rates are statistically significant determinants of economic growth in Sub-Saharan countries. This finding has supported the assumpti on that social infrastructure is an important factor that effect economic growth and development. However, the research has been limited by the lack of information on all 33 countries in Sub-Saharan region. Therefore, the sample was reduced to 23 countries. Furthermore, some social indicators such as Gini coefficient and mortality rates were not available for some of the older years in the sample. The study ends with recommendations to policy makers and discussion of implications. Dedication and Acknowledgment This dissertation is dedicated to my parents who I love unconditionally. I would like to express my gratitude to the University staff for the knowledge they shared with me and inspiring me to think critically. Authors Declaration I declare that the research project has been independently prepared by myself and represents an original work with no plagiarism. All external ideas and quotations have been properly referenced. The full list of references is contained at the end of the dissertation. Chapter 1: Introduction 1.1 Background As economic theory has evolved over the past several decades, a variety of variables have begun to infiltrate the standard models of growth and development. Roseta-Palma et al. (2010), for example, recognise that human capital has become an increasingly important variable in growth modelling, suggesting that the force behind such capital can radically alter the shape and potential of industry and markets. However, there is an inherent expectation of support, one which is based on the conceptualisation of the social infrastructure that leads the vocal masses to expect national investment in their wellbeing. To perform within a developing nation, society must be supported. The support must include effective health care and improved educational standards. The perpetuation of economic performance within diverse marketplaces ultimately relies upon the sustainability of such practices, leveraging human capital and contributing to market development. The theoretical background of this dissertation is represented by the elements of the economic theory that explains the growth and expansion as well as the role and influence of social factors. Econometric models put forward by the UN will be of particular importance. The research project will also review the arguments of famous contemporary economists such as Stiglitz (2009) and Jones and Klenow (2010). This will serve a useful theoretical background to the wider analysis, which is required for answering the research questions. The literature review will also cover the mainstream development theories such as dependency theory and social justice theory. From a conceptual perspective, researchers such as Newman and Tomson (1989) provide a precedence of focusing on social factors in economic development. They argue that social infrastructure is an essential element in sustainable long term growth of the economy. This theory may only be accepted as valid if it is statistically supported using the case studies of the economies. The testing has previously conducted by Jones and Klenow (2010). The researchers indeed supported the theory by finding that economic growth was boosted by increasing life expectancy in many countries. However, these researchers have not found such support of the theory for African countries in Sub-Saharan region. Therefore, this dissertation will attempt to study this region in more details and find statistical dependency between the social infrastructure and economic growth. Using the method of multiple regressions, a sample of 23 countries in Sub-Saharan region will be explored. The study will cover a period from 1980 to 2009. 1.2 Aims and Objectives In African countries, economic growth is a function of a wide range of variables such as foreign aid, foreign direct investments (FDI), policy reformation and liberalisation and others. This investigation seeks to examine a link, which is frequently overlooked in this dynamic and evolving economic system: social infrastructure. There is an innate reciprocity between social infrastructure and economic growth, one which requires further definition within the context of African evolution in order to determine the true order of events. In order to limit the scope and breadth of this study, the following aims and objectives were established: †¢ To determine whether social infrastructure is a fundamental determinant of economic growth. †¢ To explore statistical significance of social infrastructure as a determinant of the economic growth in Sub-Saharan countries. †¢ To recommend strategic policy implications for the transition economies in Sub-Saharan region that would help them to grow and expand. 1.3 Research Questions Based on the aforementioned aims and objectives, particular research questions were defined. They focus on investigation of the relations between the African social infrastructure and economic growth experienced by various nations within this region. It may be argued that the socio-economic aspects, which contributed to successes for many nations, remain inconsistent and non-definable today. Based on this supposition, the following research questions were defined prior to engaging in the investigative process: †¢ What are the primary threats/pitfalls associated with economic growth in Sub-Saharan Africa today? †¢ Does social infrastructure have a statistically significant impact on economic growth in Sub-Saharan countries? 1.4 Chapter Layout In order to standardise the research project, it was important to create a clear structure and presentation format. The study is structured in a way that would allow for progressing from more general information regarding the Sub-Saharan countries to more specific information regarding the variables that have a direct impact on the growth of the transition economies. The rest of the research project has the following structure. †¢ Chapter 2: Literature Review. This chapter focuses on a broad range of theoretical and empirical data that has been retrieved from a variety of academic sources. This literature review explores the determinants of the social infrastructure for developing nations, focusing on Sub-Saharan Africa. †¢ Chapter 3: Methodology. This chapter highlights the research methodology chosen during the collection and analysis of empirical data. Based on the precedence established by the past researchers, econometric modelling is used as the main method of the r esearch. This chapter also discussed the strategies and approached that were used with their justification. †¢ Chapter 4: Data Presentation. This chapter reveals the main findings and results of the research. The historical statistical data is presented and analysed. Correlation and regression analysis is applied to the data. The main results are summarised in tables and figures. †¢ Chapter 5: Discussion and Analysis. In this section, a synthesis of academic and empirical data is presented. The discussion is focused on the original research questions and objectives. They are compared to the findings achieved by previous researchers. Similarities and differences are analysed and explained. †¢ Chapter 6: Conclusions and Recommendations. The final chapter provides the final insight into the relations between social infrastructure and economic growth in Sub-Saharan countries. Recommendations for future research are offered since the research project has encountered par ticular limitations that have to be addressed in the future. Furthermore, policy implications are recommended in this chapter. Chapter 2: Literature Review 2.1. Measuring Economic Growth While it is widely recognised that the measurement of economic growth provides an accurate picture of development and achievement in transition nations, the inherent value of such metrics has been questioned during the last decade because of several pitfalls. Hoogvvelt (2001:8) argues that in early development models, all emphasis was placed on strategic enhancement of the transition economies with impoverished nations. A traditional indicator of economic growth is represented by GDP. While conceptually indicative of growth and economic expansion, this indicator has been recently challenged as an effective measurement of sustainable national development. In fact, researchers such as Stiglitz (2002, 2007) and Collier (2007) have offered the arguments on the fact that GDP fails to represent an accurate picture of national economic welfare. It is argued to limit the identification of economic inequality and circumvent such influential social indicators as mortality rates, GNI per capita , education levels, etc. Other researchers such as Thakur (2006) have suggested that the United Nations Human Development Index (HDI) should be used as an alternative measure of economic growth besides the GDP. 2.2. Growth Models The economic theory provides different growth models that explain the factors of economic growth and help to determine what cause an economy to expand. Among the well-established theories of growth are the neo-classical models suggested by Solow (1956: 65) and Ramsey (1928: 543). However, there are also alternative models that have recently been proposed. The most notable example is the endogenous growth model. 2.2.1. Neo-classical Growth Model of Solow and Ramsey The exogenous growth model has been originally presented by Solow (1956: 65). It is an extension of the previously formulated Harrod-Domar growth model. The latter suggests that the rate of economic growth is a function of the productivity of the countrys capital and the savings rates. Solow (1956: 65) has improved the Harrod-Domar growth model by differentiating between the new capital that emerged from the use of new technology and old capital. Diminishing returns started playing an important role in the exogenous growth model. Solow (1956:65) has also added labour to the determinants of the economic growth. The researcher argues that more than one factor of production should be included in the growth model. These factors are capital and labour. The researcher also emphasises the role of the technological progress in the economic growth. However, the model may be criticised for failing to provide the explanation of how and why the technology develops. In addition, the exogenous growth model may be criticised for neglecting the factor of entrepreneurship, which is argued to have a strong impact on economic growth (Braunerhjelm, 2008: 51; Audretsch et al, 2006: 119). Mathematically, the exogenous growth model may be presented as follows: Where Y is the output of the country; K is total capital (both new and old); L stands for labour; A represents technological development. The exogenous growth model is heavily reliant on the indicators estimated per capita. Hence, it places a significant emphasis on the role of the population growth in the economic growth. The capital per worker is argued to be growing only if the savings rates exceed the rate of populations growth and the level of depreciation of the capital. The exogenous growth model also suggests that the savings rate would be steady in the long run and have a positive correlation with the economic growth, i.e. the countries with higher savings rates will be expected to have higher economic growth. However, this notion was criticised by Ramsey (1928: 543) who proposed an alternative neo-classical model of growth. In his model the savings rates are assumed to be varying and not constant. The Ramsey model has changed the way the capital is modelled. Mathematically, it is represented as follows: Where k is capital; c is consumption; ÃŽ ´ is the rate of depreciation of capital; f (k) is the value of total production. Since the savings rates are not viewed as constant, the level of consumption is also considered as a varying process since it is tightly connected to savings. Since neither Ramsey nor Solow model of growth included the factor of entrepreneurship and explained technological progress as an endogenous process, an alternative model has been developed. It is called endogenous growth model (Barro and i-Martin, 2004: 205). 2.2.2. Endogenous Growth Model The previously discussed exogenous growth models suggested that a countrys GDP is a function of the savings rate and technological advances. Nonetheless, these exogenous growth models failed to show how savings are determined and how the technological changes are driven. These limitations are effectively solved by the endogenous growth model. It suggests that savings rates are simply a function of the utility maximising actions of the economic agents. Given the financial constraints, companies would aim to maximise their net income while consumers will tend to maximise their utility (Romer, 1986: 89). The endogenous growth model also explains technological progress as a result of the favourable policies from the government that do not restrict innovations and changes in the industries. It is valid to argue that in developing countries the governments may attempt to put certain restrictions on changes and innovations in order to protect the key sectors of the economy. The endogenous growth theory suggests that such actions would lead to a slowdown in the economic growth in the longer term. The theory also views company investments in the research and development as the way to technological progress and faster economic growth. Hence, the theory explains the growth of the economy with microeconomic elements (Aghion and Howitt, 1992: 323). However, the model has also been criticised in the economic literature. For example, Parente (2001: 51) argues that the endogenous growth model, even though being more complex, still fails to explain why there is a divergence in the national income per capita in emerging economies and developed countries. 2.3. The Social Factors, Economic Development and Equality A widespread academic research on social equality demonstrates that impoverished nations have traditionally failed to achieve healthy social infrastructure, which can sustain development amongst all groups of the population. Sebitosi and Pillay (2005:2045), for example, argue that poverty â€Å"is largely due to failure by society to productively deploy human resources† (Sebitosi and Pillay, 2005: 2045). The researchers argue that the governments of the countries with transition economies and policymakers cannot actively engage every individual in economic activities. In many cases, funding welfare programmes that were fiscally unsustainable has had minimal impact on the social welfare of the national inhabitants (Sebitosi and Pillay, 2005:2045). This is also illustrated by the efforts made by the African National Congress (ANC) in the late 1990s and early 2000s. Ultimately, it is the strategic utilisation of national resources that will allow for perpetuated social stability, gradual reduction of poverty over and improvement of social infrastructure. Sebitosi and Pillay (2005:2048) argue that availability of resources and the specifics of the culture determine the social infrastructure in a country. This, in turn, plays a role in the economic growth and development. Equality is a term used for describing the gap between the rich part of the population and the poor. This term is also expanded to describe the difference in rights between males and females, young and old, native and foreign ethnic groups, etc. Researchers such as Morvaridi (2008) and Houtzager (2005) argue that the merits of equality should be used as indicators of long term sustainability and economic growth of a nation. Anderson and Cavnagh (2009) have presented empirical evidence on the existence of income inequality and gender inequality that negatively impact the economic growth and development. Other academics (e.g. Sen, 2001) suggest that innate human rights must play a fundamental role in the development discourse, emphasising deficiencies within the national infrastructure that interrupt widespread equality. Accessibility and availability of resources and the level of social equality in developing nations are frequently identified as primary indicators of social development. Researchers such as Moradi and Baten (2005) have modelled social inequality according to anthropometric data. The model is focused on the level of development of social groups over the past decade. Their evidence highlights two different phenomena that have implications for policymakers in the future. First, the authors argue that evolution of the food supply has a direct and measurable impact on the physical characteristics of the population. Second, the marked increase in the social inequality has a direct impact on the resource accessibility and, subsequently, on the growth pattern of the surveyed nations (Moradi and Baten, 2005:1254). The implications of such evidence transcend the limitations of the model itself. The researchers recommend the governments to provide favourable external conditions for redistribution of wealth and resources in order to achieve higher rates of economic growth and development. 2.4. Resources, Social Determinants of Development and Opportunities In economic analysis of national development, indicators of sustainable growth are oftentimes linked to the advancement of technology, resources, and industrial activity. From a social standpoint, it is the access to resources and provision of more advanced amenities that allow researchers to effectively measure progress. Buys (2009:1496), for example, explored a widespread diffusion of cellular phones throughout Sub-Saharan Africa, modelling competitive networks according to the population concentration and government policy measures. Their time-scale representation of progress in cell-phone usage throughout this continent suggests that strategic policy reform has provided the most significant opportunity for widespread distribution of such technologies (Buys, 2009:1497). Improved competition amongst providers led to the spread of a sustainable low cost technology across the countries. This evidence suggests that opportunities play an important role in social and economic development. These opportunities, however, should be provided by the government and policy makers. Social factors in the sustainability of economic growth can oftentimes be overlooked in academia. Researchers focus instead on more tangible variables, attempting to model economic growth using purely economic variables and neglecting social factors. Chou (2006:910) demonstrates how social capital, as a strategic resource, can have a measurable and long term impact on the growth of a nation and its economic development. Essentially, as policymakers provide the resources for social capital to develop and expand, the infrastructure will simultaneously expand, allowing individuals to use the skills they have developed in a more effective and productive way. Over the long term, Chou (2006) suggests that technology and favourable policies of the government will lead countries to sustainable economic growth and stronger social infrastructure. Other models of social infrastructure have focused on the more practical composition of this expanding network. They emphasised such factors as the progress in transportation and population movement patterns. Porter (2002:286), for example, suggests that sustained improvements in both rural and urban transportation signal development progress in African nations. In particular, the author argues that economic recession of the 1980s and 1990s in African countries was reinforced by the poor condition of roads, transport and weak infrastructure. The deterioration of the transport infrastructure would reduce transport efficiency for the exchange of goods and services, resulting in a downward spiral in commercial activities (Porter, 2002:287). Porter (2002:296) argues that one of the methods to provide sustainable economic development is to stimulate the ‘scaling up of the national economy through the installation and evolution of social institutions. So, focusing on inequity in social development and the limitations imposed on infrastructure development and sustainability, the reviewed academics demonstrate how the consequence of restrictive social development is ultimately the deterioration of economic growth. The following empirical investigation will attempt to model such occurrences in modern Sub-Saharan Africa, highlighting those key variables that affect economic development. Chapter 3: Research Methodology 3.1. Research Model Researchers such as Moradi and Baten (2005:1234) argue that anthropometric models are fundamentally beneficial in the studies of national development, providing valuable insight into particular social factors that are indicative of long term development. In their analysis of Sub-Saharan African development, the authors used such models to analyse the data on accessibility of resources (i.e. nutritional and health inputs), providing a bounding metric by which they were able to evaluate inequality in the region (Moradi and Baten, 2005:1236). In a research model that was focused on a similar issue regarding the social determinants of economic growth, Newman and Tomson (1989:464) used World Bank databases to identify particular social indicators and statistically connect them to economic development. The methods and models of this dissertation are based on the research methodology of Newman and Tomson (1989: 464) and Jones and Klenow (2010). The econometric models will be represented by several equations that start from simpler ones and progress to the more complicated, which include additional variables and dummies. The list of equations that will be used is provided below. gdpij = ÃŽ ± + ÃŽ ²popij + ÃŽ ³pop65ij + ÃŽ »lifij + ÃŽ ´savij + ÃŽ µij (1) gdpij = ÃŽ ± + ÃŽ ²popij + ÃŽ ³pop65ij + ÃŽ »lifij + ÃŽ ´savij + ÏÆ'mortfij + ÃŽ ½mortmij + ÃŽ µij (2) gdpij = ÃŽ ± + ÃŽ ²popij + ÃŽ ³pop65ij + ÃŽ »lifij + ÃŽ ´savij + ÏÆ'mortfij + ÃŽ ½mortmij + ωhexpij + ÃŽ µij (3) gdpij = ÃŽ ± + ÃŽ ²popij + ÃŽ ³pop65ij + ÃŽ »lifij + ÃŽ ´savij + ÏÆ'mortfij + ÃŽ ½mortmij + ωhexpij + Ï dummyrij + ÃŽ µij (4) gdpij = ÃŽ ± + ÃŽ ²popij + ÃŽ ³pop65ij + ÃŽ »lifij + ÃŽ ´savij + ÏÆ'mortfij + ÃŽ ½mortmij + ωhexpij + Ï dummytij + ÃŽ µij (5) gdpij = ÃŽ ± + ÃŽ ²popij + ÃŽ ³pop65ij + ÃŽ »lifij + ÃŽ ´savij + ÏÆ'mortfij + ÃŽ ½mortmij + ωhexpij + Ï dummyrij + Ï„dummytij + ÃŽ µij (6) Among these models, the best one will be selected with the Akaike information criterion. Random and fixed effects will be used in the panel regression models to investigate, for example, the impact of the geographical location on the economic growth and other factors. A general form of the panel regression model with fixed effects will be as follows: yij = ÃŽ ± + ÃŽ ²Xij + uij, where the error term u is assumed to be a sum of the fixed effect and another error term: uij = ÃŽ ¼i + ÃŽ ½ij. The random effect model will be different from this one in how it explains ÃŽ ¼i and ÃŽ ½ij . These terms are assumed to be completely independent. Furthermore, they random variable effect implies that these terms are normally distributed, i.e. The choice of the methodology is consistent with the theoretical concepts of the growth models reviewed in the literature and supported by such economists as Solow (1956), Romer (1986) and Barro and i-Martin (2004). The theory of economic growth expressed by these economists mainly suggests that a countrys GDP is a function of both economic variables and social. In particular, it has been seen in the literature review that exogenous growth model connects GDP with the savings rates and technical progress. The theory of Solow (1956) and the growth theories in Barro and i-Martin (2004) also suggest that GDP is related to the population (social variable) because the latter determines the amount of capital and labour as factors of production. Hence, the core of the econometric model has been built on the exogenous growth theory proposed by Solow (1956) and explained in Barro and i-Martin (2004). However, it was found in literature review that this theory was also criticised. The models ha s been enhanced by inclusion of additional variables to make it more complicated and create a representation of social infrastructure, which is a key focus of the research. 3.2. Research Instruments, Approach and Sampling Based on the research model presented by Moradi and Baten (2005) and Newman and Tomson (1989), this investigation is focused on the changes in economic growth as a result of a number of social and economic variables that have been described. Researchers Thomas (2003) and Creswell (2009) provide models of empirical research, emphasising a unique link between both quantitative (statistical, data-driven) and qualitative (phenomenological, experience-driven) data streams. Their mixed method research approach places one of these two methods in a primary position over the other, allowing the subsequent research to serve as a validation mechanism. The data used in the dissertation is entirely based on economic development statistics within the Sub-Saharan African counties. However, the various phenomena, which contribute to such development, are of primary concern for the relevance and validity of this investigation. Therefore, a mixed method research approach was chosen for the study. Using this method, statistical findings will be achieved and later compared with various economic and social phenomena across the surveyed nations. Because there are 33 different nations currently associated with Sub-Saharan Africa, this research has chosen a sample of the top 23 countries in terms of population, attempting to retrieve data that is directly relevant to the conceptualisation of the long term sustainable growth and the impact of the social infrastructure on this process. Non-probability sampling technique has been implemented in choosing the countries. This decision may be justified by the fact that total population represented by the 33 countries in Sub-Saharan region is quite small and could be used without picking a sample. However, sampling was needed since a limited amount of data was available for the countries. Historical statistics have been gathered from Penn World Table, International Monetary Fund (IMF, 2010) and World Bank (2010) database. These sources provided information for only 23 counties in the Sub-Saharan region. 3.3. Strategy of Research While all of Africa could have provided very general information relative to the development of these nations as a conglomerate, it was important to evaluate the social infrastructure of these nations to narrow the scope of the research. The case study research strategy has been employed in order to investigate the social and economic situation in all the companies within the chosen sample. The case study strategy, which was popularised by Yin (2009), allows the researcher to extract particular data from complex problems and identify those variables, which are most significant. Furthermore, this strategy allows for effective exploration of both the statistics and context of the problem (Saunders et al, 2007, p.119). Yin (2009) presents a model of the investigative case study, suggesting that the breadth and focus of research questions will ultimately define the methods employed during the study. His validation of the case study strategy as a valuable tool within academic research is based on the depth and scope of the data generated from such investigation (Yin, 2009:14). Following such case study guidance and the mixed method approach previously discussed, this research was conducted in an effort to determine whether or not the social infrastructure has a direct and measurable impact on overall economic performance of the countries in Sub-Saharan region. The data sources were retrieved from two globally respected sources: The World Bank and the International Monetary Fund (IMF). Economic indicators were also gathered from Penn World Table. These databases have compiled specific economic and social data on the majority of the nations in the world, providing a resource for academics and policymakers. While the World Bank (2010) remained the primary source of the data, the IMF (2010) database was used for comparative purposes and in order to identify several variables not found within the World Bank annals. All analysis was conducted using Microsoft Excel and Eviews 6 statistical package. 3.4. Limitations As previously mentioned, the scope of the research in this empirical case study was limited to the top 23 countries in Sub-Saharan region. This limitation arose from the lack of economic and social data for the rest ten countries in the region. World Bank (2010) provided most but not all information that was needed. Another important limitation of the research, which is worth noting, is the lack of observations for several social indicators. It was noted previously that the sample of data covers 23 countries with the time range from 1980 to 2009. While many of the economic variables such as GDP were available for this period, some social indicators such as mortality rate were available only for a period of up to 5 years. Therefore, the overall sample will have to be shrunk to run the regression with these variables that have fewer observations. This is expected to have a negative impact on the accuracy of the study and estimated statistics. Chapter 4: Data Presentation and Analysis World Bank (2010) has provided economic and social data for twenty three countries in Sub-Saharan region. However, most of the data contained missing points. In order to avoid the problem of missing points, sixteen Sub-Saharan countries have been selected to be analysed for which more complete data was available. The data ranges from 1980 to 2008. However, some of the social indicators such as health expenditure and mortality rate were available only for a limited time period. The health expenditure indicator was available only for a period from 2003 to 2007. Mortality rate indicator was available only for a period from 1998 to 2008. Due to the differences in the time period of data several panel regressions will be run and the best model will be chosen by means of the Hausman test. Panel regression analysis has provided a number of advantages to the research project. First of all, it has allowed for gathering a large number of observations that totalled 4,250. If only time-series analysis was used, there would have been fewer observations. Similarly, in a cross sectional analysis the number of observations would solely depend on the number of countries included. Panel regression analysis has allowed for combining both time and cross sectional dimensions making the analysis more advanced. Secondly, another advantage of using the panel data analysis was higher degrees of freedom. This is a result of the more observations that the method has provided. Degr

Contact---fiction Story :: essays research papers

In 2001the work began on the biggest dam project in history of the human kind. The place chosen was the Great Canyon in Colorado. After six months of heavy digging, workers had found something strange.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  John, who was one of the scientists that come to this site, was especially interested in this subject. He in his long black trench coat looked like Germans during World War II. He looked even more familiar to SS man when he took off his hat and sunglasses and showed his blonde hair and blue eyes.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  His team was already ready to go to the “zero zone';. Their assistant was Michael. He was main contractor of the construction. He showed them the place where they found this “thing';. -So what is it? - Asked John -I don’t know, besides that’s why you’re here to find out. -Right.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Soon they were on the place. There was this big hole blown by the explosives. The purpose was to make fundaments for dam so that it would not leak the water. The cave was reddish in color as the rest of the landscape. The thing that you couldn’t miss was that after few feet from the entrance it was not a cave anymore. -So this is the place –said John -Yeah, look at this polished walls. -Aha and I’m sure it was not done by water. -Yeah that’s for sure-said Mike with a little excitement in his voice, and added-I worked on similar projects many times and I saw many kinds of caves with really weird shapes, but never like this one. -It’s, it’s just that it is so symmetric-added John   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The cave was very large and they had to bring flashlights because they couldn’t see a thing. In the middle of “the room'; John found big object that looked kind of similar to artifacts from Egypt. The object was square in base and as it went up it changed to a triangle and looked similar to pyramid. There were some strange signs that John has never seen before. Later he gave idea that these signs are kind of clue to what this object does or it is. As he was looking for any sign that was similar to him he found few which interested him most. First sign looked like bird at first but after further analysis it looked more like jet plane. The other sign at first looked like ghost or god but later it looked like astronaut in his costume.

Mehta Automobiles Essay

In 1980, Mr. Sanat Mehta joined Standard Automobiles of Ahmedabad as a mechanic. In appreciation of his excellent work, he was soon promoted to the post of chief mechanic. Mr. Mehta’s professional ability, his pleasing manners and sense of responsibility endeared him to the customers of Standard Automobiles to such an extent that some of them persuaded him to commence his own automobile repair workshop. One of them persuaded him to commence his own automobile repair workshop. One customer, Mr. Nitin Shah offered to rent a part of his godown situated in a busy street of Ahmedabad city. Another customer, Mr. Mohan Kapoor, the local manager of a large bank mentioned that a loan of up to Rs. 100,000 could be made available to him under the scheme for financing small business. After some discussion with members of his family, Mr. Mehta decided to commence an automobile service and repairs workshop under the name of Mehta Automobiles. For this purpose, he invested Rs. 50,000 from his past savings and accepted Mr. Shah’s and Mr. Kapoor’s offers. A part of the amount was deposited in the bank in the name of Mehta Automobiles. The enterprise had a good start, thanks to the patronage of some old customers of Standard Automobiles. Mr. Mehta publicized his operations by displaying cinema slides in selected local cinemas and soon his workshop became well known in that area. In the beginning, Mr. Mehta did all the work of the mechanic, helped by two assistants recruited at the time of the commencement of the business. Soon he added a spare parts selling section to his business as this was quite a profitable associated activity. In this, he was helped by his son Mr. Rajendra Mehta who also assisted him in collection of cash from debtors. During his service at Standard Automobiles, Mr. Mehta had come to know very well some wholesalers of service materials, such as tools, stores and spare parts. This helped him in buying such material on credit. However, most of the other purchases particularly spare parts and practically all his sales were on cash basis. Because of the relatively small extent of credit transactions, Mr. Mehta had not thought of maintaining formal accounting records, as he had felt that increases in cash balance would adequately indicate the profit earned by him. All cash received was deposited in the bank account, and expenses and payments were recorded in a notebook. Mr. Mehta occasionally experienced some difficulty in recording transactions which did not result in direct sales. For instance, when his personal car was overhauled, involving considerable use of his mechanics’ time as well as spare parts costing about Rs. 15000 he was not sure how it should be recorded. He finally decided that since the garage was owned by him no adjustments need be made for this transaction. Rapid expansion of his business compelled Mr. Mehta to hire four new assistants and two mechanics. He also recruited a part-time salesman for spare parts selling. Mr. Mehta continued to attend personally to purchases, collections and other administrative aspects of business. A small section of the workshop premises was set apart for office purposes. The office was simply furnished with a table, three chairs, a filing cabinet and also a telephone. Spare parts, stores, tools etc. , and other supplies which were formerly stored in a small room at his residence, were now stored in steel racks in a section of the workshop. Mr. Mehta soon came across and advertisement that appeared in the local newspaper. A well-known automobile company of Bombay was looking for a good automobiles service shop owner, who would be willing take up the sole selling agency of their cars and spare parts in Gujarat. Mr. Mehta applied for this agency as he was advised by his friends in business circles that such an agency would be a profitable proposition. However, he was puzzled by two conditions which were imposed in awarding this agency. According to the first condition, the agent had to obtain a certificate from his bank to the effect that a minimum balance of Rs. 500,000 was maintained in the business account. Secondly, the agent was required to send to the principal, periodic statements showing the current financial position of the business and the business results in the immediate past period. Mr. Mehta was duly assigned the sole selling agency for the Gujarat on the basis of excellent reports received by the principal from local businessmen. For fulfilling the first condition, Mr. Mehta saw Mr. Kapoor, the Bank agent. After discussions with Mr. Mehta, the Bank agent agreed to grant Mr. Mehta a further loan of Rs. 500,000. He asked Mr. Mehta, to submit a statement showing the current position of his business so that he could process the loan application. Mr. Mehta mentioned that so far he had not maintained any regular accounts. The maintenance of such records required specialized knowledge which he did not possess and he felt hiring an accountant would increase his costs which he could not afford in his competitive business situation. Mr. Kapoor said that systematic accounting records would be a necessity, if Mr. Mehta wanted to expand his business and fulfill the operational requirements like bank borrowing, credit purchases as well as legal requirements to payment of tax. The same evening Mr. Mehta saw Mr. Ashok Lal, a friend who was the Chief Accountant of a local textile mill. He expressed to Mr. Lal his desire to start keeping systematic accounting records and requested him to prepare for him a statement showing the assets and liabilities of his business. He also supplied to Mr. Lal the necessary information to enable him to prepare the required statement. Mr. Lal also explained to Mr. Mehta how a â€Å"Profit and Loss Analysis† could be prepared so that Mr. Mehta could be more accurately measure the results of his business performance. He prepared a list of various statements that Mr. Mehta should arrange to obtain periodically from his subordinates for maintaining his accounting records. Questions for consideration 1. Mr. Mehta mentioned that. i) he could not have systematic accounting records because he did not possess specialized accounting skill; and ii) keeping such records would mean increase in costs, which he could not afford. How would you respond to these comments? 2. What information would Mr. Lal require for preparing the financial statement? 3. What items would you expect to find in the statements of financial position and profit and loss analysis relating to Mr. Mehta’s business? 4. What records would Mr. Mehta require to maintain for controlling his business activities?

Cousin vinny

Thank you. † The movie Director: Jonathan Lynn Plot Us Mary: Bill Gambling and Stanley Retentions are two friends from New York University who just received scholarships to UCLA They decide to drive throw GHz the South. Once they arrive in Alabama, they stop at a local convenience store to pick up a few snacks. But, no sooner than they leave the store, they are arrested. They had thought that they were arrested for shoplifting, but they were arrested for mum order and robbery.Worse, they are facing execution for this crime. Bill and Stan do not have enough money for a lawyer, so the good news is that Bill has a lawyer in his FAA mill, his cousin, Vincent Laggardly Gambling. The bad news is that Finny is an inexpert n ceded lavaÐ’Â »year who has not been at a trial. So, Finny has to defend his clients and beat lee an uncompromising judge, some tough locals, and even his fiancee, Mona Lisa Vi to, who just does not know when to shut up, to prove his client's innocence.But he w ill soon realize that he is going to need help. Personal Response: Primarily, I thought the film was very funny. I loved the actor/ actress and the overall storyline was great. L liked the movie because it was comical while also being s errors at mom points. Loved the relationship between Finny and Lisa; they were funny together however, they helped each other throughout the film no matter how much the eye argued .It honestly had to be the best part Of the movie for me because even though t hey argued constantly you could still tell that the two bought out the best in one a another. I kind of had a feeling that if Vinson the case it would be in part because of help from sis because the whole time she was so adamant in trying to help him win. So when she showed him the photos I had an idea that something in them would be the kicker to turn the case around completely, and that's exactly what happened.I loved the e fact that Finny turned out to be a good lawyer, and that the case was won. There wasn't much that I disliked about the film, the only problem I had was n the beginning where there were many unnecessary misunderstandings such as w why the two young men were being convicted and how Finny came into the picture. I din' understand the reason that the two boys were getting arrested for something they didn't do because they were too stupid to ask what they were being arrested for, an d the cop didn't bother to tell them until they got there.

Description and Examples of Variables

Description and Examples of Variables A variable is a name for a place in the computers memory where you store some data. Imagine a very large warehouse with lots of storage bays, tables, shelves, special rooms etc. These are all places where you can store something. Lets imagine we have a crate of beer in the warehouse. Where exactly is it located? We wouldnt say that it is stored 31 2 from the west wall and 27 8 from the north wall. In programming terms we also wouldnt say that my total salary paid this year is stored in four bytes starting at location 123,476,542,732 in RAM. Data in a PC The computer will place variables in different locations each time our program is run. However, our program knows exactly where the data is located. We do this by creating a variable to refer to it and then let the compiler handle all the messy details about where it is actually located. It is far more important to us to know what type of data we will be storing in the location. In our warehouse, our crate might be in section 5 of shelf 3 in the drinks area. In the PC, the program will know exactly where its variables are located. Variables Are Temporary They exist just as long as they are needed and are then disposed of. Another analogy is that variables are like numbers in a calculator. As soon as you hit the clear or power off buttons, the display numbers are lost. How Big Is a Variable As big as is needed and no more. The smallest a variable can be is one bit and the largest is millions of bytes. Current processors handle data in chunks of 4 or 8 bytes at a time (32 and 64 bit CPUs), so the bigger the variable, the longer it will take to read or write it. The size of the variable depends on its type. What Is a Variable Type? In modern programming languages, variables are declared to be of a type. Apart from numbers, the CPU does not make any kind of distinction between the data in its memory. It treats it as a collection of bytes. Modern CPUs (apart from those in mobile phones) can usually handle both integer and floating point arithmetic in hardware. The compiler has to generate different machine code instructions for each type, so knowing what the type of variable helps it generate optimal code. What Types of Data Can a Variable Hold? The fundamental types are these four. Integers (both signed and unsigned) 1,2,4 or 8 bytes in size. Usually referred to as ints.Floating Point Numbers up to 8 bytes in size.Bytes. These are organized in 4s or 8s (32 or 64 bits) and read in and out of the CPUs registers.Text strings, up to billions of bytes in size. CPUs have special instructions for searching through large blocks of bytes in memory. This is very handy for text operations. There is also a general variable type, often used in scripting languages. Variant - This can hold any type but is slower to use. Example of Data Types Arrays of types- single dimension like drawers in a cabinet, two-dimensional like post office sorting boxes or three dimensional like a pile of beer crates. There can be any number of dimensions, up to the limits of the compiler.Enums which are a restricted subset of integers.  Read about  what is an enum is.Structs are a composite variable where several variables are lumped together in one big variable.Streams provide a way to manage files. Theyre a form of a string.Objects, are like structs but with much more sophisticated data handling. Where are Variables Stored? In memory but in different ways, depending on how they are used. Globally. All parts of the program can access and change the value. This is how older languages like Basic and Fortran used to handle data and it is not considered a good thing. Modern languages tend to discourage global storage though it is still possible.On the Heap. This is the name for the main area used. In C and C, access to this is via pointer variables.On the Stack. The stack is a block of memory that is used to store parameters passed into functions, and variables that exist local to functions. Conclusion Variables are essential to procedural programming, but it is important not to get too hung up on the underlying implementation unless you are doing systems programming or writing applications that have to run in a small amount of RAM. Our rules regarding variables: Unless you are tight on ram or have large arrays, stick with ints rather than a byte (8 bits) or short int (16 bits). Especially on 32 Bit CPUs, there is an extra delay penalty in accessing less than 32 bits.Use floats instead of doubles unless you need the precision.Avoid variants unless really necessary. They are slower.

The Purpose of Life

The Purpose of Life Free Online Research Papers Life is a big trap. As the great philosopher Hume once said that we are put on the big stage of life, being concealed from why everything happens. We have no wisdom to foretell the future, nor can we prevent those unfortunate things from happening. We are suspended in the eternal air of unknown and fear. We don’t know why our lives began. It’s out of our control. One day, our parents came together and said to each other, why don’t we have a baby? Then, a baby was done. Our lives may be just an accident at the very beginning. We don’t know the purpose of our lives. You may imagine you are the chosen people of the God, but you can never know for sure. Every day, there are people who choose to commit suicide out of pain of living. It’s said that there’s a heaven after here, and there’s perpetual happiness in the heaven. But you can never know for sure because it is also said that there’s a hell. We are trapped here on the earth between birth and death, not knowing when and where is our terminal station. Fortunately, life is an enchanting trap. Life also gives us gifts. He gives us enormous energy to explore the unknown world and the joy of getting to know; he gives us wisdom to change the world and create meaningful things and the bliss out of achievements; most importantly, he gives us heart to feel the unknown but beautiful world. We are young; we own every new sun in every morning. But what if one day we were told that tomorrow would not be our another spare day? Life recently re-taught me the beauty of being living. I was hospitalized following a severe cough which brought out several mouthfuls of blood. At first, I thought I’d got a cancer. I felt death was coming for me. I never thought about I would be caught by a fatal disease before; I never thought about being deprived of tomorrow so quickly; also, I never thought about tomorrow would turn out to be so beautiful only because I was later told by the doctor that it’s not a fatal disease! At the same time, tens of thousands of people lost their lives in the earthquake. The whole country was thrown into a great shock and enormous grief. The disaster once again told us the truth of the fragility of our lives, in such a cruel way! Those who have gone are gone forever; It is responsibility of us who are still living to cherish our lives. â€Å"Come on, China!† All Chinese people get united and shout loudly. To me, â€Å"come on, China.† means â€Å"come on, everybody.† Whenever life seems hard to endure, come on! It is until now when we really get trapped under the earth, being in the darkness, not able to move that we begin to realize how much life has long been given us: freedom, sunshine, water, food, etc. Life is enchanting because it teaches. The value of it is seldom known until it is lost. Another grand essential that makes life enchanting is love. Parents’ love, love between man and woman, and love between friends, all are ingredients that make our life sweet and fragrant. Love opens the door of our hearts to let others in and blend with you jubilantly in both sorrows and happiness of life. As what has been elaborated by the American thinker Emerson: â€Å"When something sensational happens to us, sharing the happiness of the occasion with friends intensifies our joy. Conversely, in times of trouble and tension, when our spirits are low, unburdening our worries and fears to compassionate friends alleviates the stress.† With love, life gets us enchanted. At last, life is also enchanting because of work. Although more than once people find work tiring and dream of eternal relaxation without any work, work is a significant source of human satisfaction and happiness. The American journalist David Grayson said, â€Å"Happiness, I have discovered, is nearly always a rebound from hard work.† Work, like food, gives us the essential nutrition of life. We apply our wisdom and creativity in work, through which we prove our value, draw sense of achievement and get the meaning of our lives. Research Papers on The Purpose of LifeLifes What Ifs19 Century Society: A Deeply Divided EraThe Effects of Illegal ImmigrationThe Spring and AutumnHip-Hop is ArtGenetic EngineeringTwilight of the UAWAssess the importance of Nationalism 1815-1850 EuropeMarketing of Lifeboy Soap A Unilever ProductAppeasement Policy Towards the Outbreak of World War 2

Origins of the Expression Honi Soit Qui Mal Y Pense

Origins of the Expression Honi Soit Qui Mal Y Pense Honi soit qui mal y pense are French words that  youll find on Britains royal coat of arms,  on the cover of British passports, in British courtrooms, and elsewhere of note. But why does this Middle French expression appear in weighty official uses in Britain?   Origins of Honi Soit Qui Mal Y Pense These words were first uttered by Englands King Edward III in the 14th century. At that time, he reigned over a part of France. The language spoken at the English court among the aristocracy  and clergy and in courts of law was Norman French,  as it had been since the time of William the Conqueror of Normandy, starting in 1066. While the ruling classes spoke Norman French, the peasants (who comprised the majority of the population) continued to speak English. French eventually fell out of use for reasons of practicality. By the middle of the 15th century, English again ascended to the throne, so to speak, replacing French in British centers of power.   Around 1348, King Edward III founded the Chivalric Order of the Garter, which today is the highest order of chivalry and the third most prestigious honor awarded in Britain. It is not known with certainty why this name was chosen for the order.  According to historian Elias Ashmole, the Garter is founded on the idea that as King Edward III prepared for the  Battle of Crà ©cy  during the Hundred Years War,  he gave forth his own garter as the signal. Thanks to Edwards introduction of the deadly longbow, the well-equipped British army proceeded to vanquish an army of thousands of knights under French King Philip VI in this decisive battle in Normandy. Another theory suggests a totally different and rather fun story: King Edward III was dancing with Joan of Kent, his first cousin and daughter-in-law. Her garter slipped down to her ankle, causing people nearby to mock her. In an act of chivalry, Edward placed the garter around his own leg saying, in Middle French, Honi soit qui mal y pense. Tel  qui sen rit aujourdhui, shonorera de la porter,  car ce ruban sera mis en tel honneur que les railleurs le chercheront avec empressement  (Shame on him who thinks evil of it. Those  who laugh at this today will be proud to wear it  tomorrow  because this band will be worn with such honor that those mocking now will be looking for it with much eagerness).   Meaning of the Phrase Nowadays, this expression could be used to say Honte celui qui y voit du mal, or Shame on the one who sees something bad [or evil] in it.   Je danse souvent avec Juliette...Mais cest ma cousine, et il ny a rien entre nous: Honi soit qui mal y pense!ï » ¿I often dance with Juliette. But she is my cousin, and there is nothing between us: Shame on the one who sees something bad in it! Spelling Variations Honi comes from the Middle French verb honir, which means  to shame, disgrace, dishonor. It is never used today. Honi is sometimes spelled honni with two ns. Both are pronounced like honey. Sources History.com Editors. Battle of Crecy. The History Channel, AE Television Networks, LLC, March 3, 2010. The Order of the Garter. The Royal Household, England.

Genetically Modified Food Speech or Presentation

Genetically Modified Food - Speech or Presentation Example There is immense turbulence in the food industry because of the adverse effects of the genetically modified foods on human body, their minimal nutritional value, and their potential to cause diseases. The high cost and lack of awareness among farmers are factors that might hinder the growth of food industry that has otherwise immense potential of growth. This report based on primary and secondary research discusses food industry’s growth in relation to a range of technological, economic, and political factors. Primary survey conducted with focus group interview was based on 4 respondents’ groups including company executives, government agencies, investors, and people. Two genetically modified food making companies’ executives were asked questions. They emphasized upon the role of technology and market dynamics in making and sale of genetically modified foods respectively. The importance of technique of production varies from one industry to another, with techniqu e being more important in the manufacturing of genetic foods, but the role of supply chain is the same in all industries. Company executives generally believe that supply chain management and logistics services are vital to food industry’s growth. Interview with the Associations 1 employee from two NGOs each were asked questions regarding food industry’s ethics. ... NGOs conduct research to minimize the possible environmental effects of genetically modified foods. NGOs are proactively ensuring food security and safety along with taking measures for environmental health and safety. Interview with Government official 1 government official was asked about the policies regarding production and distribution of genetically modified foods. He told that government obliges food manufacturers to mention the type and nutritional value of food. While there are no government-sponsored schemes of food-labelling in the US, yet the government prohibits the presence of genetically modified materials in organic foods so that it can label GMO-free foods. Government offers certification and encourages consumers to use renowned brands for their security. Government has established three levels of legislative framework for consumers’ security; one being government’s assessment of genetically modified crops for environmental and health safety, the second being government’s prohibition of sale of unsafe genetically modified foods, and the third being food labelling. Government is proactively managing genetically modified foods. Interview with Customers Companies can determine future state and plan strategically by conducting consumer survey. In this survey, 5 consumers were asked questions. Consumers don’t mind buying genetically modified foods provided that they are cheap and their nutritional value is preserved. Consumers feel confident buying genetically modified foods with governmental support and security. Consumers clearly understand the differences between organic and genetically modified foods saying that the former grown naturally while the latter are grown technologically. Consumers think that genetically

K. Marx Selected writing Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

K. Marx Selected writing - Essay Example Marx holds that human knowledge automatically begins from our sensations and perceptions, and consequently, the interaction between men and their situations are what conglomerate to form reality. In contrast to Hegel, Marx insists that objective truth is not utterly attainable through historical progression. As he explains, "the communist materialist sees the necessity, and at the same time the condition, of transformation both of industry and of the social structure (Marx 135). This declaration leads Marx to conclude that, in order to improve human lives, history must play itself out differently. Marx believes that many of his predecessors inadequately address issues of freedom by discounting the social circumstances of the abjectly poverty stricken. The idea that individuals entirely dominated by the oppressive will of the capitalist class would enter into a rational bargaining position with the rest of society is completely absurd to Marx. Marx claims that concepts of personal ownership and private property are not abstract truths pertaining to human morality. Contrarily, he argues that the sanctity of private property rests in a ruling class attempting to infuse values into society that help to maintain their privileged position.

Neuropsychology paper on Split Brain Research Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Neuropsychology on Split Brain - Research Paper Example The brain is also very segmented in that specific parts of the brain are responsible for different tasks in ability and processing. Even though all of these different parts of the brain operate differently in processing and storage of a particular stimulus, they still communicate with one another in effort to process and integrate sensations more efficiently and more fully. One of the biggest divisions in the brain’s structure is the right and left hemisphere. Each is responsible for its own processing of data and they have to communicate with each other in order to understand the whole picture. As a result of this, a great deal of research has been devoted into split-brain studies in trying to figure out how the two hemispheres work in tandem as well as how they work separately. Like the Earth, the brain is divided into two hemispheres: the right and left hemispheres. They are as much independent as they are intertwined. Researchers and psychologist hypothesize that the divis ion of the two hemispheres makes them more like two minds rather than one. Research has shown that the left hemisphere is more dominant and responsible for processes involving language whereas the right hemisphere is designed to process spatial relationships. This has been proven through experimentation as well as natural medical phenomenon. When a person has a stroke and it impacts an area of the brain, it is observed that functioning that is associated with that area decreases. The way in which we process the environment and information is when these two hemispheres are in sync and are communicating with one another. For example, the left side of the brain controls the right side of the body and the ride side of the brain controls the left side of the body. This is achieved by a connection known as the corpus callosum. The corpus callosum is a thick band of neural fibers, which essentially anchor both hemispheres together in order to facilitate communication. If this connection we re to be severed, then the way in which the hemispheres could communicate would be separated, thus creating two different minds within one. This is never done for research, although it has been used in epileptic patients in order to cure seizures. Research was conducted (not through severing the corpus callosum) on the dual processing of the two hemispheres and designing tests in which the effects of separating the corpus callosum could be simulated and the behavior observed. This involved a combination of visual recognition tasks as well as tactile response tasks. In the visual tasks, their vision was altered in some way in which the disruption of communication occurred to where only one side of the brain was processing, while the other was missing the sensory input. In tactile response experiments, participants were asked to identify objects. Depending on which hand it was placed in had an effect on whether they could verbalize the recognition of the object. The research was able to conclude that there were remarkable differences in the way the two minds operate independently of each other. In fact, it is shown from some research that by having a set of brains versus one unified one leads to increased ability to dual process and complete tasks (Gazzaniga, 1967). Since the first studies and research that were conducted into split brain research